The Gift: Creativity and the Artist in the Modern World
Authors: Lewis Hyde
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Overview
My book, The Gift, explores the fundamental nature of art as a gift, not a commodity. I argue that art exists in two economies – a market economy and a gift economy – but that it is the gift economy that is essential to art’s existence. Without the spirit of the gift, there is no art. I explore this idea by drawing on anthropological studies of gift exchange, folk tales, and personal anecdotes, showing how gifts circulate, create bonds between people, and generate increase. I then apply these insights to the lives and work of two very different poets, Walt Whitman and Ezra Pound, exploring how they each navigated the tension between their artistic gifts and the demands of a market society. I show how Whitman’s work embodies a spirit of abundance and generosity, while Pound’s work is marked by a struggle for order and control. Ultimately, I argue that a healthy society needs both these impulses, both the expansive energy of the gift and the discipline of the will. My book addresses anyone interested in the creative process, the relationship between art and society, and the ongoing tension between gift exchange and market forces. It is particularly relevant to artists who struggle to find a place for their work in a world dominated by commerce, and to those who seek to understand the vital role that art plays in our individual and collective lives. In the second half of the book, my focus on the lives and work of Whitman and Pound places my work within the tradition of literary criticism, but my larger aim is to offer an alternative understanding of the value of art, one that is rooted in the ancient practice of gift exchange and that challenges the dominant assumptions of a market society.
Book Outline
1. Some Food We Could Not Eat
Gifts are not inert objects but possess a kind of inherent momentum. To keep a gift without giving in return is to halt this momentum and effectively kill its spirit. This applies both to material gifts and to intangible ones like artistic inspiration. A gift that cannot be passed on loses its vitality.
Key concept: “An Indian gift,” … “is a proverbial expression signifying a present for which an equivalent return is expected.” The phrase illustrates a key characteristic of gifts: they should circulate, prompting a return not as quid pro quo payment but as a continuation of movement. A gift not given ceases to be a gift.
2. The Bones of the Dead
The concept of a ‘gift community’ emphasizes the social bonds created through the circulation of gifts. Unlike market exchanges, which are transactional and aim for equilibrium, gift exchange creates enduring, though often unquantifiable, value as gifts move in a circle, increasing in worth as they go. Converting gifts into capital disrupts this cycle, often with harmful effects on the community.
Key concept: “One man’s gift,” they say, “must not be another man’s capital.” Tribal societies often distinguish between the circulation of gifts and the accumulation of capital, understanding that converting a gift into an investment disrupts the reciprocal relationships that gifts foster.
3. The Labor of Gratitude
Gifts often mark important transitions in our lives, helping us move from one stage to another. These ‘threshold gifts’ can be seen as acknowledging and even encouraging these transformations. They highlight the necessity of letting go of the old to make room for the new.
Key concept: Threshold gifts mark the time of, or act as the actual agents of, individual transformation. They accompany major life transitions – births, graduations, marriages, deaths, etc. – and symbolize, even enact, the death of an old identity and the birth of a new one.
4. The Bond
Gifts create bonds between people, turning strangers into acquaintances and acquaintances into friends. They bridge the gap between individuals, establishing a sense of connection and shared experience that transcends the isolation of individual existence. This bonding power can even create a sense of community where none existed before.
Key concept: “A conflict exists,” says Lévi-Strauss, “not very keen to be sure, but real enough and sufficient to create a state of tension between the norm of privacy and the fact of community… This is the fleeting but difficult situation resolved by the exchange of wine. It is an assertion of good grace which does away with the mutual uncertainty.” Gift exchange can transform mere proximity into social connection, bridging the gap between individuals and establishing, however briefly, a sense of community.
5. The Gift Community
Gift economies operate most effectively within small groups where personal connections foster trust and reciprocity. As groups grow larger, the bonding power of gifts weakens, and alternative systems of exchange, often based on legal contract and market mechanisms, become necessary to maintain social cohesion. This leads to an ongoing tension between the freedom associated with market societies and the sense of community fostered by gift exchange.
Key concept: In states that profess to be such a “big family” we can well expect an equivalent to my friend’s refusal to participate in Christmas. The jails in the free world are full of people who have committed “crimes against property,” but in the East, it seems, they lock men up for crimes “in favor of property.” The contrasting views of property highlight the tension between individual freedom and communal obligation inherent in societies organized around different principles of exchange.
6. A Female Property
The exchange of women as gifts in marriage reveals much about a society’s understanding of gender, power, and the relationship between the individual and the community. In patriarchal societies, the woman is often treated as a gift given by her father to her husband’s family, strengthening male power and limiting female agency. In societies that grant women greater autonomy, the practice of ‘giving’ women in marriage is often absent or attenuated.
Key concept: I suspect we may make a general point here: in societies that confer some degree of power upon women—matrilineal groups like the Uduk being a primary, but not exclusive, example—women will tend not to be given in marriage or, if they are, the return gifts will tend to be tokens and not substantial wealth. The way a society treats women as gifts reveals its underlying beliefs about gender, power, and individual agency.
7. Usury: A History of Gift Exchange
Usury, the charging of interest on loans, can be understood as a manifestation of the tension between gift exchange and market forces. In its original sense, ‘usury’ referred to any interest charged, representing an attempt to rationalize the increase that naturally comes to a gift as it circulates. The prohibition against usury found in many societies reflects a desire to prevent the commodification of essential goods and services, and to ensure that the benefits of increase flow to the community as a whole, not just to individuals.
Key concept: “God has excluded in general all increase of capital.” Such is the ethic of a gift society. The quote juxtaposes the logic of capital accumulation with the ethics of a gift society, highlighting how the pursuit of individual profit can disrupt the communal benefits of gift exchange.
8. The Commerce of the Creative Spirit
Artistic creation often involves a dynamic interplay between receiving a gift of inspiration and shaping that gift into a finished work. The artist must cultivate a receptive state, allowing the imagination to be moved by what comes to it, and then engage the will to give form to those initial inspirations.
Key concept: The parts that embarrass you the most are usually the most interesting poetically, are usually the most naked of all, the rawest, the goofiest, the strangest and most eccentric and at the same time, most representative, most universal … That was something I learned from Kerouac, which was that spontaneous writing could be embarrassing … The cure for that is to write things down which you will not publish and which you won’t show people. To write secretly … so you can actually be free to say anything you want … Ginsberg emphasizes the importance of uncensored, spontaneous expression in accessing the ‘gift’ of artistic inspiration.
9. A Draft of Whitman
Whitman’s understanding of the creative spirit has implications for his vision of a democratic society. Just as the artist draws on an inner wellspring of inspiration, so the citizen of a true democracy must develop a strong sense of self, rooted in an understanding of his or her unique gifts and experiences. This emphasis on individual self-realization is not at odds with Whitman’s vision of community, however; rather, it is the foundation for a society in which diverse individuals can come together in a spirit of mutual respect and shared purpose.
Key concept: “The noiseless operation of one’s isolated Self” precedes community. Our actions and character must spring from what is received in the ground of our being, else they will be merely derived behaviors, appliqué personalities. Whitman emphasizes the importance of individual self-discovery and inner transformation as the foundation for a healthy democracy.
10. Ezra Pound and the Fate of Vegetable Money
Pound’s work is characterized by a tension between two opposing impulses: a celebration of artistic inspiration and natural fecundity, and a concern with order, discipline, and cultural transmission. He sees the artist as a key figure in navigating this tension, drawing on the wellspring of the imagination while also working to give enduring form to those inspirations. This dynamic interplay is mirrored in Pound’s economic and political thought, which seeks to reconcile individual creativity with social cohesion.
Key concept: “The principle of good is enunciated by Confucius,” Pound had explained in his magazine, The Exile. “It consists in establishing order within oneself. This order or harmony spreads by a sort of contagion without specific effort. The principle of evil consists in messing into other people’s affairs.” Pound connects individual inner order, artistic creation, and social harmony, highlighting the role of the artist in cultivating and transmitting cultural value.
Essential Questions
1. What does it mean to say that art is a gift, not a commodity?
Hyde argues that art is fundamentally a gift, not a commodity. He supports this argument by highlighting the presence of ‘gift’ in the creative process itself. Artists often experience inspiration as a gift, something that comes to them from beyond their conscious control. Furthermore, the act of creating a work of art is often seen as a gift to the world, an offering of beauty, insight, or emotional resonance that cannot be fully captured by market value. Hyde further suggests that treating art as a commodity, subject to the forces of supply and demand, can diminish its power and vitality.
2. How does gift exchange differ from market exchange, and how does this difference relate to the nature of art?
Gift exchange, as Hyde describes it, is a form of social interaction that creates bonds between people, strengthens community, and generates increase. Gifts circulate, creating a sense of shared ownership and responsibility. This circulation generates a kind of ‘social capital’ that benefits the group as a whole, fostering trust, reciprocity, and a sense of belonging. In contrast, market exchanges, with their emphasis on individual profit and the accumulation of capital, can weaken social bonds and erode community.
3. What is the ‘labor of gratitude,’ and how does it relate to the reception and transmission of art?
Hyde suggests that the ‘labor of gratitude’ is the work we do to receive a gift fully and to prepare ourselves to pass it on. This labor involves a transformation of the self, a coming up to the level of the gift, as it were, so that we can give it away again on our own terms. In the context of art, the labor of gratitude involves not only appreciating the gift of the artist’s creation but also allowing that gift to move us, to inspire our own creativity, and to motivate us to share our own gifts with the world.
4. What is the ‘gifted state,’ and how does it relate to the creative process?
Hyde uses the term ‘gifted state’ to describe a state of consciousness in which the artist is receptive to inspiration, open to new possibilities, and able to create work that is both original and meaningful. This state is often characterized by a sense of ‘flow,’ in which the artist loses track of time and ego-consciousness and becomes fully absorbed in the creative process. Hyde suggests that this gifted state is similar to the state of mind that is cultivated in certain spiritual practices, and that it is essential to the creation of enduring works of art.
5. How can the artist navigate the tension between the gift economy and the market economy?
Hyde argues that the modern artist faces a difficult challenge in balancing the demands of the gift economy, which governs artistic creation, with the demands of the market economy, which governs the artist’s livelihood. He suggests that there are several ways in which artists can navigate this tension, including taking on second jobs, seeking patronage, and finding ways to sell their work without compromising their artistic integrity. Ultimately, Hyde argues that a healthy society needs to find ways to support its artists, not simply because art has economic value, but because art is essential to our individual and collective well-being.
Key Takeaways
1. Gifts require a ‘labor of gratitude’ to be fully received.
A key takeaway from Hyde’s exploration of gift exchange is the concept of the ‘labor of gratitude.’ This refers to the work we do to receive a gift fully, to transform ourselves in its light, and to prepare ourselves to give it away again on our own terms. This idea suggests that receiving a gift is not a passive act but an active process of engagement and transformation.
Practical Application:
In the context of product design, understanding the ‘labor of gratitude’ can lead to designing products that encourage users to ‘give back’ to the community, fostering a sense of shared ownership and responsibility. This might involve incorporating features that allow users to easily share their creations, contribute to a knowledge base, or provide feedback and support to other users.
2. Gift exchange can create and sustain communities.
Hyde’s exploration of ‘gift communities’ highlights the power of gifts to create and sustain social bonds. Gift communities are characterized by a spirit of generosity, reciprocity, and shared ownership. They are often found in small, close-knit groups where personal connections foster trust and mutual obligation. Hyde suggests that the principles of gift exchange can be applied to larger social groups as well, though with some modifications.
Practical Application:
In a professional setting, the principle of ‘gift community’ can be applied to foster a more collaborative and supportive work environment. Instead of viewing colleagues as competitors in a zero-sum game, we can encourage the sharing of ideas, knowledge, and expertise as gifts, recognizing that the more we give, the more we all benefit. This might involve establishing mentorship programs, peer-to-peer learning opportunities, or simply creating a culture of open communication and mutual support.
3. The ‘will toward order’ can stifle the creative spirit.
Hyde, through his analysis of Pound’s work and life, highlights the limitations of the ‘will toward order’ as a guiding principle in both art and life. He suggests that while the will is essential for giving form to creative inspiration, an overemphasis on willpower can stifle the imagination and lead to a kind of sterile perfectionism.
Practical Application:
In the context of AI, recognizing the limitations of the ‘will toward order’ might encourage developers to design systems that are more open to serendipity, intuition, and the emergence of unexpected possibilities. This might involve incorporating elements of randomness, allowing for user customization and adaptation, or designing systems that can learn and evolve over time in response to user input.
Suggested Deep Dive
Chapter: Two • The Bones of the Dead
This chapter delves into the concept of ‘increase’ in the context of gift exchange, offering a nuanced understanding of how gifts generate value that transcends mere economic calculation. This concept is particularly relevant to AI engineers as they consider the social and ethical implications of their work, prompting them to design systems that foster creativity, collaboration, and the circulation of knowledge as a gift to society.
Memorable Quotes
One • The Motion. 21
“One man’s gift,” they say, “must not be another man’s capital.”
One • The Motion. 25
The gift is property that perishes. It is no accident that the gifts in two of our stories so far have been food. Food is one of the most common images for the gift because it is so obviously consumed.
One • The Motion. 39
In the world of gift, as in the Scottish tale, you not only can have your cake and eat it too, you can’t have your cake unless you eat it. Gift exchange and erotic life are connected in this regard. The gift is an emanation of Eros.
Two • The Bones of the Dead. 57
“God has excluded in general all increase of capital.” Such is the ethic of a gift society.
Eight • The Commerce of the Creative Spirit. 188
The work of art is a copula: a bond, a band, a link by which the several are knit into one.
Comparative Analysis
While The Gift shares common ground with other works exploring the relationship between art and society, such as John Berger’s Ways of Seeing and Pierre Bourdieu’s Distinction, Hyde’s unique contribution lies in his focus on the ethics of artistic creation and reception. Unlike Berger, who deconstructs the social and political messages embedded in visual art, or Bourdieu, who analyzes how art functions as a form of cultural capital, Hyde explores the moral implications of treating art as a gift rather than a commodity. He argues that the gift economy, with its emphasis on generosity, reciprocity, and the creation of social bonds, provides a more nourishing and sustainable environment for artistic creation than the market economy, with its focus on individual profit and the accumulation of capital. This ethical lens aligns Hyde’s work with that of thinkers like Ivan Illich and Wendell Berry, who similarly critique the commodification of human experience and advocate for alternative models of social and economic organization.
Reflection
Hyde’s The Gift offers a powerful and timely critique of the commodification of human experience. His exploration of gift exchange provides a valuable lens for understanding the dynamics of creativity, community, and social change. While his analysis is grounded in anthropological research and historical examples, its relevance extends far beyond academia, offering insights into the challenges and opportunities facing artists, educators, and anyone who seeks to create a more humane and sustainable society. It is important to note that Hyde’s romanticized view of gift economies might not fully capture the complexities of real-world societies, where power dynamics and self-interest often influence gift-giving practices. Furthermore, his critique of market forces, while insightful, could benefit from a more nuanced understanding of the role that markets can play in fostering innovation and economic growth. Nonetheless, The Gift remains a seminal work, prompting us to reconsider our assumptions about value, ownership, and the nature of human connection. In an age marked by increasing commodification and social fragmentation, Hyde’s work offers a powerful call for a return to the ethics of the gift, reminding us that true abundance lies not in the accumulation of material wealth but in the circulation of generosity, creativity, and love.
Flashcards
What is a gift?
A thing we do not get by our own efforts; it is bestowed upon us.
What is an ‘Indian Gift’?
The practice of giving a gift and expecting an equivalent in return.
What does ‘consumed’ mean in the context of gift exchange?
A gift is consumed when it moves from one hand to another with no assurance of anything in return.
What is the increase, and how should it be treated?
The increase that comes to a gift as it circulates; it must remain a gift and not be treated as capital.
What are the three obligations of gift exchange, as identified by Marcel Mauss?
The obligation to give, the obligation to accept, and the obligation to reciprocate.
What is a ‘gift community’?
The social bonds created and sustained by the circulation of gifts, fostering trust, reciprocity, and a sense of belonging.
What is usury?
The charging of interest on loans, representing an attempt to rationalize the increase that naturally comes to a gift as it circulates.
What are ‘threshold gifts’?
Gifts given at times of significant life transitions, marking a passage from one state or stage to another.
What is the ‘labor of gratitude’?
The work we undertake to receive a gift fully and to prepare ourselves to pass it on; it often involves a transformation of the self.